Thursday, July 15, 2010

Novel Response.

I must say that Survival of the Sickest, was one of the most intriguing books that I have ever read. The various possibilities and relationships that the Dr. Sharon Moalem explores is of high interest, for the topics that are discussed affect everyone in some way. For example, the causes of certain genetic diseases such as Hemochromatosis and diabetes are compelling when explained from an evolutionary perspective. Also, the relationships between humans and bacteria can be symbiotic. The author did a phenomenal job of expressing his ideas and thorough research in a step-by-step approach. Although it was difficult to switch between two obscure ideas throughout a chapter, a remarkable connection was eventually made to place reasoning behind a cause. An example of when this took place was in chapter two, when the story switched between the subjects of diabetes and climate change. I would have never imagined that one caused the other!

An area of particular interest was the subject of Epigenetics, which was discussed in chapter 7. I always thought that whatever was present in an individual's DNA is what would also be expressed. Who ever imagined that certain methyl mark-ups could determine how much or little a gene would be expressed in an organism? I find that amazing, and a huge indicator on how the many areas of biology are indeed, still continuing to evolve.

Conclusion

33. On a personal note, what would you add to his list (of appreciation from the book)

Personally, I would add that everything happens for a reason. As the book suggests, many potentially harmful disorders are caused by the evolutionary pressure to survive and reproduce. As the human species thrives to adhere to evolutionary standards, many adaptations to a changing environment result in the development of diseases and disorders that were beneficial for the time, but not in the long-term.

34. The quotation by Theodosius Dobzhansky stating that, “Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution,” is supported by the concepts prescribed in the book Survival of the Sickest. The book explains the reasoning behind many phenomenons that are pertaining to the human race and their interactions with other organisms through the idea of evolution. Dr. Moalem directly answers any question pertaining to the actions and behaviors of multiple species under the same evolutionary mantra- to survive and reproduce.

Chapter 8

28. Make connections between the following terms:

a. Progeria is caused by a gene that is responsible for the production of lamina A. This protein is usually in charge of providing structural support for the nuclear membrane that houses genes at the center of every cell. Those who have progeria also have defective lamina A, along with cells that deteriorate at rapid rates.

b. The Hayflick limit is the amount of times all human cells can reproduce until they re completely exhausted. The limit on cellular reproduction in humans is 52-60 times. This limit is caused by the loss of telemores, a genetic buffer at the ends of chromosomes. Telemores provides blank slots that can replace the bits of DNA that are gradually reduced as a cell divides. But a cell only has a limited amount of telemores, which directly limits the amount of cellular replication.

c. Cancer cells and stem cells are often dubbed as “immortal cells” because they have the ability to form at unprecedented rates. Both types of cells use telemerase to fix their telemeres in a lengthened state at the ends of chromosomes so that cell production can continue.

d. In mammals, the larger the natural size of a species is, the longer the average member of the species lives. This is partially due to larger animals having a superior ability in repairing DNA.

e. Risky childbirth is something that humans must endure due to evolutionary advantages. As humans evolved to have larger brains, it was necessary to have larger skulls for protection.This made childbirth risky, for human offspring with larger heads have to ease their way through a small birth canal, which can result into many complications. Furthermore, bipedalism requires females to have larger pelvis that is “twisted” in the middle, and widens at the point of the birth canal’s beginning.


29. Explain the author’s iPod and aging analogy.

The iPod analogy is used to describe the aging of organisms that are evolved to have shorter lives. If a particular species has a low life-expectancy and DNA errors, it pointless to solve those errors because it will not live to experience the effects. This is the same as not buying an extended warranty on an iPod that you only plan to keep for a week.

30. Identify the 5 lines of cancer defense.

1. There are specific genes responsible for tumor supression.

2. Certain genes call for specialized cancer hunters that are programmed to seek and destroy cells.

3. Some genes are responsible for repairing the genes that fight cancer.

4. Apostosis “convinces” dangerous cells to kill themselves.

5. The Hayflick limit supresses the number of times a cell can reproduce to the maximum of about 60 times.



31. What are the two accomplishments of biogenic obsolescence?

The first is clearing out older models for new ones, which means that there is more rrom for change, or evolution. Second, aging protects the group from contracting harmful parasites that can be passed on to future generations. A species can upgrade itself through sex and reproduction.

32. Compare and contrast the Savanna and aquatic ape hypotheses.

The savanna and aquatic ape hypotheses are two rivalry explanations that attempt to answer certain evolutionary changes in humans. In a general sense, the savanna hypothesis holds that our apelike ancestors migrated to the great grassy plains from forests because of climate change. Bipedalism was a result of having the ability to easily scan an area for food resources. Brave males who needed to hunt for their meals lost a lot of their hair so that they could cool down, because they tended to overheat. In comparison, the aquatic ape hypothesis attempted to explain an evolutionary cycle without centering around males. It suggested that humans spent time in both the water and land. Because standing upright allowed humans to venture into deeper water, bipedalism evolved. A prominent nose with nostrils on the bottom-side allowed humans to dive. Extra fat along the skin in humans provides warmth and keeps them afloat in water. Both hypotheses acknowledge the influence of water in the evolutionary traits of humans. The main difference is the hyped analysis surrounding males and the amount of water exposure and dependence throughout the pre-human lives.

Chapter 7

25. Make connections between the following terms:
a. Agouti mice are yellow in color and large, often obese in size. These characteristics cause them to be highly susceptible to cancer and heart disease. As vitamins were supplied to the experimental group of pregnant Agouti mice in a research study at Duke university, thin brown mice who carried the Agouti gene were born. The chemical methyl was attached to the gene and suppressed its expression, otherwise known as DNA methylation. This meant that the environment of the pregnant mice (vitamins) allowed healthier Agouti mice that carried the gene but did not display the characteristics.

b. A certain species of lizard produce offspring that have long or short bodies and tails depending on whether or not the mother smelled a lizard-eating snake during her pregnancy. If so, the offspring will have long bodies and tails to lower their risk of being snake food.

c. The barker hypothesis calls for acquiring a thrifty phenotype. In the case of smoking fathers who had picked up the habit before puberty, the toxins of inhaled smoke are also embedded into male sperm. The sperm signals a difficult environment to the fetus, which means that the sperm creates a child with a metabolism that is sufficient in maintaining energy. A smaller baby results into an overweight child in response to the high calorie, low nutrient Western diet.
d. Maternal inheritance in terms of epigenesis is very direct, in terms of ercieving a particular methyl markup. The egg an that individual developed from was created in their mother’s womb while their mother was still inside that indivudal’s grandmother’s womb. This direct link proves to have epigenetic effects, for if a grandmother smoked, she passed along an epigentic effect to her daughter’s egg supply. That effect caused the grandchildren in the lineage to be more susceptible to asthma.

e. Betel nut chewing is a common cause of oral cancer because it hpermethylates three cancer-fighting genes. These three genes supress tumors, repair DNA, and force lone cancer cells to self-destruct. Because these three genes are hypermethylated by vigorous betel nut chewing, those who feed their habit eventually develop cancer.

26. Epigenesis may be partially responisble for the childhood epidemic of obesity. Explain.

If a mother consumes a lot of junk food, especially during the first critical but unknown weeks of her pregnancy, the embryo receives signals that allude to a nutrient-poor environment in its future. So as certain genes are expressed more than others through epigenesis, the baby is born small, so it needs less food to survive. As a thrifty metabolism settles in, the baby is exposed to foods that are nutritonally poor and calorie rich. This results in fatter children and higher obesity rates.

27. “Good times mean more boys. Tough times mean more girls.” Explain.

Males are more demanding biologically on the mother’s body during pregnancy and are less likely to survive if malnourished. Whether it is the high stress of a tough time that affects how a mother can take care of herself, more boys are miscarried. In fact, male miscarriages had risen to an astronomical increase of 25 percent after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. From an evolutionary prospective, a higher number of females and a few strong males allow for an assured preservation of the human race during tough times than vice versa. Furthermore, after major events such as World War I and II, there was a higher male birth rate.

Chapter 6

20. Briefly discuss the following terms/scientists:
a. Dr. Edward Jenner was a country physician during the eighteenth century in England. He noticed that milkmaids who contracted cowpox had immunity to the very deadly infection of smallpox. A cowpox infection protected those infected from smallpox as well. Dr. Jenner had unveiled the first vaccination known to humans.

b.The first vaccination was derived from the cowpox infection to treat smallpox. A vaccine uses a mild or harmless version of a virus, so that the immune system can produce and store antibodies that are prepared to attack once the threatening virus invades the body.

c. Antibodies are created by the immune system with the purpose of defense against a harmful virus or unknown intruder in the body. Antibodies are only stored in the body once they have been exposed to the virus. Through a vaccine, antibodies are stored and are prepared to fight any sort of real infection that comes their way.

d. B-cells are a type of white blood cells that aid in the production of antibodies on behalf of the immune system. They are a building block for antibodies because of they snip and reconstruct certain parts of their DNA to adhere to the necessary requirements for a certain antibody.

e. “Junk DNA” refers to the 97 percent of an entire person’s DNA that is not directly responsible for coding proteins that enable cells to be built. As research has progressed, many scientist have taken the “junk” out of its title, for the importance of noncoding DNA has increased. Nearly half of all noncoding DNA are jumping genes, which are closely tied with specific viruses. This means that a great amount of human DNA has components of an evolved form of viruses.

f. Lamarck was a scientist who actually turned out to be more of a philosopher. He was wrongly tied to the idea of inherited acquired traits, which stated that traits acquired by parents in their lifetime would be passed along to their offspring. He promoted this idea, along with the notion of evolution. The idea that he is famously linked to has also found a connection with jumping genes and traits that are passed down a generation.

g. Barbara McCLintlock was an avid researcher in the area of genetics, and focused a lot of her research in corn. She discovered sequences of DNA changing and placing themselves in active gene slots as the environment put stress on the organism. This phenomenon seemed like an intentional mutation, and is often known as “jumping genes”. Despite the skepticism that she received when she first introduced the idea to fellow scientists in the 1950s, she eventually gained the acclaim that she deserved at the age of 81 with a Nobel Prize.

h. The usual replication process calls for DNA to various forms of RNA. Retroviruses are made of RNA, which means that they are transcribed into RNA. something that is the opposite of the information replication process. Retroviruses have the ability to transform a person’s DNA due to the use of reverse transcriptase and rapid reproduction. Because retroviruses are embedded into one’s DNA, they are passed onto further generations- unless they are harmful.

21. What is the Weissman barrier?

The Weissman barrier can be seen as a semi-permeable membrane between germ cells and somatic cells. Germ cells contain information to be passed onto further generations, the prominent cells are the egg and sperm. Somatic cells are every other cell in the body. The Weissman barrier maintains the idea that information from the somatic cells can never be passed onto germ cells.

22. Make connections with the following terms:
a.Transposons and viruses use the same replication process in the body. They use a cut and paste process that often result into mutations. Since DNA transposons (a type of jumping gene) are so similar to viruses, it means that certain viruses have been integrated into the human gene pool through the works of evolution. This means that the viruses linked to the jumping genes have shaped up to behave in a positive way to indivduals through the works of evolution.

b. Flu epidemics and outbreaks are thought to be caused by antigenic shifts and drifts. Antigenic drifts occur when there are mutations in the DNA of a virus. The mutations can be caused by radiation, which is emitted at excessive amounts by the sun. The flaring of sunspots codes for more antigenic drift, which means results to an epidemic or outbreak.

23. Humans have about 25,000 genes and more than a million different antibodies. How is this possible?

Every virus or intruder in the body requires a specific type of antibody formed by a B-cell to fight it. Since the number of viruses out number the amount of genes that humans have, it only makes sense to have more antibodies, so that the human body can prevail in a battle against foreign intruders.

24. What is a persisting virus?

Persisting viruses have migrated into our genome for over millions of years and have established themselves as our evolutionary partners in crime. As the persisting viruses seek shelter in our genes, they have an interest in a continuous and prosperous evolutionary pathway for human beings. Since viruses have the ability to replicate at unprecedented rates, they are able to produce great amounts of valuable genes that aid in human survival and evolution at higher rates than we could ever do

Chapter 5

16. Complete the parasite chart.

(This is included in the e-mail that was sent to Mr. Bauer)

17. Identify 3 ways in which microbes/parasites move from host to host.

The first way that microbes and/or parasites move from host to host is through a form of transmission that is within close proximity. This includes passage through the air or direct physical contact. Second, parasitic transmission can occur through a “middle man”. This means that the parasite uses an another organism as a mode of transportation to another host, such as mosquitoes and flies. Last is traveling via tainted water or food, as it is with the case of malaria and typhus.


18. For each pathway listed in question #2, explain the relationship of the mode of transmission to the virulence of the intruder.

The first pathway regarding close proximity is one that carries unpleasant, yet bearable circumstances for the host. The host is able to deal with the parasitic consequences because the microbe/parasite depends on the host to remain stable as it continues to evolve under the guiding principals of survival and reproduction. Using an intermediate organism can leave the host at a terrible state, like in the disease of malaria, where an individual is near death if left untreated. The parasite must insure that there is as much of it circulating in the blood as possible, so that once a mosquito is more likely to ingest a parasite. This means that the virulence of the intruder is high and damaging. Finally, transmission through food or water is probably considered the most virulent to the intruder due to its easy accessibility to other potential hosts. As long as there is an efficient delivery system for the parasite (such as unprotected food or water), then the degree of the harm caused by the intruder decreases in importance.

19. What is our advantage in the survive-and-produce race?

Despite the faster-paced evolution of parasites and other sorts of bacteria and microbes due to rapid replication, humans have the advantage of intelligence. The human race has the ability to outsmart harmful microbial evolutionary turns by choosing to shape the environment in way that puts the host (the humans) at an advantage. As the resistance to Penicillin proved to evolve in a speedy manner, humans can use their brain power to avert host manipulation by weakening the microbe so that the relationship between the host and the parasite can be symbiotic.

Chapter 4

13. Explain the role of G6PO.

G6PD protein production is an important element that is typically found in every red blood cell. The purpose of G6PD is to maintain cellular integrity by dismantling any free radicals or chemical agents that have the potential to destroy a red blood cell.


14. Briefly describe the connection between the two concepts:

a. Many plants have natural defenses to protect ithemselves against grazing predators that seek at the wrong time. The English clover contains a phytoestrogen known as formonenetin, which mimics animal sex hormones. Too much of the phytoestrogen can diminish the reproductive abilities of the animals that intake the English clover. During the 1940s, Australian sheep were eating imported English clover plants that had higher levels of formononetin due to its trouble adapting to the dry climate in Australia. So the ingested levels of formononetin from the English clover was the cause of the Australian sheep breeding crisis of the 1940s.

b. Capsaisin is the sticky fluid among seeds that give hot peppers their heat. It has evolved in a way to ensure that the pepper can be regrown by the spreading of its seeds. Birds are not able to take the heat of capsaisin, and disperse the seeds all over the ground when airborne. Mammals destroy the seeds in the digestion process, and are unable to deal with the extreme heat that is given off by the peppers. This means that evolution has shaped which forms of life are able to intake the capsaisin, so that reproduction can take place.

c. Air conditioning allows individuals who live in areas with high rates of malaria to stay indoors and avoid mosquitoes that carry the potentially deadly disease.

d. Favism and fava beans are evolutionized in a way that make malaria inhospitable in red blood cells. Malaria likes to cling to healthy red blood cells without the presence of any other competitors, such as free radical agents. Favism means that there is a deficiency in the G6PD enxyme, and fava beans release numerous free radicals that cause a deadly environment for malaria.

15. Explain the following statement found on page 87: “Life: it’s such a compromise.”

The author is trying to explain that there a along with good things, comes the unwanted. The example that is used to demonstrate this point is the vegetable celery. While growing stalks of celery, organic farmers don’t use pesticides. But as insects infiltrate a stalk of celery, the natural defense of the vegetable, psoralen, increases due to the invasion of insects and puts the consumer at risk. Ordinary farmers on the other hand use pesticides that are potentially hazardous to human health. Organic farmers protect the outside, while ordinary farmers protect the inside of celery. Compromising means that one must deal with one or the other.

Chapter 2

9. Why do we need Vitamin D? Cholesterol? Folic acid?

Vitamin D is essential for bone growth in children and or the maintenance of healthy bones for adults. The vitamin makes sure to regulate phosphorus and calcium levels in blood. Lacking the necessary levels of vitamin D directly cause osteoporosis in adults and rickets in children, which both branch out to other diseases. Proper functioning of the immune system, nervous system, and process of clotting all rely on vitamin D. Not only is cholesterol needed to create and maintain cell membranes, but it also sends messages from the brain, fights diseases and infections alongside the immune system, and produce estrogen and testosterone. Furthermore, cholesterol can be converted into vitamin D when the skin is exposed to ultraviolet B (UVB) light. Last, folic acid is a vital component to cell growth due to it function of replicating DNA when cells undergo cell division. A lack of folic acid during a pregnancy may cause physical deformities to a fetus. Additionally, individuals who lack folic acid or folate may contract anemia because the necessary acid produces red blood cells.

10. Briefly describe the connection between the two concepts.
a. While tanning, ultraviolet rays are exposed and often absorbed the skin. UV rays destroy folic acid within the body, which means that cell growth cannot prosper without the ability to replicate DNA during mitosis. A lapse in cell growth can cause birth defects in women who go tanning and expose themselves to UV rays when pregnant.

b. While wearing sunglasses, an individual is more likely to get a sunburn. The tanning process begins with the optic nerve sensing sunlight and informing the pituitary gland to unleash hormones that boost the melanocytes within the body. This causes an excessive production of melanin. This process can easily be inhibited when wearing sunglasses, because the optic nerve cannot sense as much sunlight, causing the miniscule melanin production due to quickly cause a sunburn after a period of time.

c. Research shows that African Americans are highly vulnerable to hypertension and answer the data by looking at the past, particularly the slave trade. The gruesome journey that was imposed by slave traders forced Africans in terrible conditions that caused much of the passengers to die. Those with higher levels of sodium in their body had the ability to avoid life-threatening dehydration and had a better chance to survive. When the evolutionary advantage combines with modern diets that are sodium-enriched, hypertension is easily distinguishable in African-Americans.

d. Asian flush is caused by certain enzymes that enable tolerance to alcohol. The presence of such genetic variations can be traced back to practices that were used to obtain clean water. European civilizations used the process of fermentation, which killed the bacteria in water and enabled a higher tolerance for the consumption of the substance and the ability to detoxify it. On the other hand, Asian communities cleansed their water by boiling it and transforming it into tea. Thus, Asians were not under evolutionary pressure to drink alcohol in order to drink clean water, which meant that they did not have a high tolerance to alcoholic beverages.

e. Skull shape is affected by climate in the sense that scientists believe that the shape depends on how much heat must be stored and released in a particular region.

f. Dense and thick body hair, especially on the forearms and legs, are regarded as a natural defense to ward off mosquitoes that carry malaria.

11. What’s so fishy about the Inuit’s skin?

Inuits are a dark-skinned population that recieve a very limited amount of sunlight. Evolving to have lighter skin in order to obtain more vitamin D from the sun is completely unecessary for the Inuits because they eat a great amount of fish that have an abundance of vitamin D.

12. Explain the good and bad of ApoE4.

If an individual is adequately exposed to sunlight, then they have the benefit of having excess cholesterol that can be easily converted into vitamin D. If sunlight is not present, cholesterol builds up and clings to arteries. Excessive build up can lead to a blockage that causes a heart attack or stroke.

Chapter 1

2. The author points out many ways in which iron impacts life. Identify/describe atleast five.
  • Iron serves as a carrier of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream via red blood cells (RBC).
  • The enzymes that are responsible for the chemical heavy lifting performed within our bodies contain iron.
  • The most common kind of anemia are caused by iron deficiencies. The lack of RBCs in the body can result in fatigue, shortness of breath, and heart failure.
  • Iron exceeding the standard three or four grams in a human’s system is considered unhealthy. Cells containing too much iron is home to the growth and rapid multiplication of bacteria and other pathogens such as cancer cells.
  • Individuals with the genetic condition of Hemochromatosis are actually less likely to contract an infection of some sort that inflicts sickness despite greater levels of iron in the body. This is because the iron within a particular white blood cell known as a macrophage, are at substantially lower levels, allowing for the maximization of depleting any harmful invaders in the body.

3. In the context of this chapter, explain the author’s reference to Bruce Lee and to the barber pole.

The author’s reference to the iconic figure Bruce Lee was to emphasize the effective and powerful role of the iron-deprived macrophages in the immune system. Hemochromatic macrophages are much better at combating bacteria due to the substantially lowl evels of iron. The lack of iron in the macrophages is the reason why hemochromatosis continues to be passed down the family tree- it prevents the spreading of disease into the body, despite the perverse effects that it can have in the long-term. The barber pole had the initial purpose of symbolizing the once-popular practice of bloodletting, or bleeding. The brass bowl at the top modeled where the leeches were kept. Second, the brass bowl at the bottom represented a space for blood collection. Furthermore, the red and white stripes symbolized medieval bandages that swirled as they dried.


4. Distinguish between the three types of diabetes.

Diabetes can be classified into three types: Type I, Type II, and gestational diabetes. Type
I is most commonly referred to as juvenile diabetes. Dubbed as an autoimmune disease, Type I incorrectly causes the body to mislabels cell that make insulin as intruders. Due to the lack of normal insulin production at such an early age, the only treatment options include self-administered insulin injections or a surgically implanted insulin pump. Furthermore, Type II Diabetes, most commonly known as adult-onset, are caused by a mix of factors that include genetics and lifestyle choices. Approximately 85 percent of those with Type II diabetes are obese. As obesity becomes an epidemic at the current time, even young obese children are suffering from a diagnosis that is expected at mid-life. Adult-onset diabetes are popular along demographic groups, due to changes in lifestyles that can be traced back to centuries ago, as it is with the case of the southwestern Pima Indians. Finally, gestational diabetes only occur in pregnant females. As a matter of fact, about four percent of pregnant women in the U.S., or about 100,000 women. It is a temporary condition that has the ability to resolve itself, for once the child is born, there is no longer a need for the fetus to intake the extra glucose flowing in the bloodstream via the placenta. Babies who are born to mothers who have gestational diabetes often have macrosomia, or excessive chubbiness due to the extra sugars.


5. What did the ice cores of 1989 reveal about the Younger Dryas?

The ice cores revealed that the Younger Dryas only spanned three years. The estimates regarding the length of this period had originally been overestimated by scientists, and continually dwindled down as data began to surface. Research showed that the onset of the Younger Dryas only took a mere ten years, proving that climate change could take place rapidly.

6. Describe the body’s “arsenal of natural defenses” against cold.

The body defends itself in chilly environments in very natural processes. The body’s first move is shivering, rigid muscle movements that burn stored sugar into heat. Next, the body inhibits emaciated capillaries in the extremities. The numb and tingly sensation first reaches the fingers and toes before creeping up the arms and legs. Blood from the closed walls of the capillaries head to the torso, where it can circulate and bestow heat to the vital organs. For those whose ancestry can be traced back to the extreme cold, frostbite to the extremities can be avoided by the Lewis wave or “hunter’s response”. Blood from the constricted capillaries briefly expand to distribute warm blood to shunned areas. For example, Inuit hunters can increase hand temperature from freezing to fifty degrees in few minutes. Brown fat is another natural defense of the body when it comes to combating the cold. With its instantaneous ability to create heat due to its heat-generating tissue, brown fat can last for as long as it is fed. Unlike other tissues, it doesn’t need insulin to carry sugar into the cell and can burn up to a staggering 70 percent more fat than an average fat cell. But with great defenses comes a downfall- brown fat can only be acquired through prolonged exposure in extremely cold climates. Last, urination is a natural response to cold weather. As more blood floods into the core of the body, the kidneys are directed to relieve of the body of unnecessary fluids.

7. Describe the connection between Rana sylvatica and diabetes.

During the months of winter, the Rana sylvatica, or commonly known as the wood frog, has the ability to completely freeze solid as a form of hibernation during the cold months of winter. It can easily be mistaken for dead, for there is no heartbeat, no breathing, and no recordable brain activity. But the freezing up is only a natural defense against the cold, for once the wood frog thaws out of its icy state, it is already hopping away. As temperatures decrease, the fluids within the frog all pool into the abdomen. As this is happening, glucose is gathering in the bloodstream along with the release of more sugar alcohols. A spike in sugar levels results in a lower freezing point, and acts as an anti-freeze. The whole process of increasing blood sugar levels to deal with the cold is a proposed explanation to the adaption of diabetes in humans during the turbulent period known as the Younger Dryas.

8. In chapters I and II several inherited disorders were discussed. Create and complete a chart with the following information: Disease/disorder, Symptoms, Evolutionary Advantage.

Hemochromatosis
Symptoms: Fatigue, tiredness, skipping heart beat, joint pain
Evolutionary advantage: During the times of the Bubonic plague, the infectious disease was spreading like wildfire in Europe, particularly the western half. Since iron is a breeding house for bacteria, those with lower iron levels within their white blood cells were less likely to contract the devastating disease. So, with the main goal of survival to reproduce, Hemochromatosis, a genetic condition that decreases iron in a macrophage, came to be an evolutionary advantage.

Diabetes- Type I, II, and Gestational
Symtpoms: Dehydration, fatigue, irritability, frequent urination, excessive thirst
Evolutionary advantage: The Younger Dryas was a rapid period of extreme cold that swept Earth about 13,000 years ago. In terms of dealing with the rapid shift in climate, individuals who were accustomed to a temperate climate had to adapt themselves in order to follow the motto of evolution- survive and reproduce. In response to the extreme cold, it is estimated that the process of accumulating blood sugars in the body as insulin levels dropped occurred in order to survive the brief period known as the Younger Dryas.

Introduction

1. What is the “big” question the book will attempt to answer?

Overall, the book is attempting to prove that almost all diseases have or had a reason for existing. In order for the human race to exist, evolution required mutations and conditions to form, so that the completion of its two inherent goals would be accomplished- to survive and reproduce.